Different Perspectives in Psychology Coexist Rather Than Conflict

This paper approaches the topic from a consideration of psychological research in the fields of sex and gender and language. It does so in general terms and avoids discussion at levels of detail. Therefore where a reference is made to specific research the intention is to do no more than exemplify a general principle. The paper will conclude that different perspectives in psychology do at times co-exist, though complement and conflict are frequent.It will suggest the lack of a decisive answer is a result of the relative immaturity of Psychology as a discipline and a concomitant lack of adequately powerful theories that might serve to unite otherwise disparate perspectives. A consideration of how psychology approaches the study of sex and gender reveals, amongst others, four significant theoretical perspectives that are for the most part quite distinct in terms of their objects of knowledge and consequent methods of analysis.Biological psychology is concerned with explaining the diffe rences between male and female in terms of hormones, genes and brain structure. It is mechanistic, with a strong empirical tradition. Evolutionary psychology attempts to explain differences between sexes in terms of behavioural selection for reproductive fitness. Whilst in large part necessarily theoretical, it embraces empirical methods as a means of testing theories. Social constructionist psychology approaches sex and gender through the study of discourse in various historical, cultural and social contexts and so is hermeneutic.Finally psychoanalytic psychology primarily uses clinical observation and the study of infants to gather evidence of how humans acquire and develop a sense of sex and gender (cited in Holloway et al, 2007, pp. 127ff). (6) The immediate impression from the above is that the scope for complement, conflict or co-existence is not clear-cut. Given that they do not share common objects of knowledge, the hope might be for complementary theories that together cont ribute to a broad understanding. Certainly the biological and evolutionary perspectives appear complementary at the theoretical level n that both regard biological sex as the determinant of gender and view differences between sexes as biological features that have been selected for during evolution. However, biological psychology attempts to explain differences in male-female psychology in terms of selected physiological characteristics, for example dimorphism in brain structures (cf. Hofman and Swaab, 1991, cited in Holloway et al, 2007, p. 139). On the other hand the evolutionary psychologist would principally argue in favour of selected behavioural characteristics such as differences between male and female sexual attitudes (cf. Clark and Hatfield, 1989, cited in Holloway et al, 2007, p. 146).There is thus an apparent conflict at the level of analysis. It is therefore ironic that evolutionary psychology must perforce co-exist with biological psychology since, given the understand able constraints on its ability to conduct the sorts of empirical investigations that might be wished for (cf. Herrnstein-Smith, 2000, cited in Holloway et al, 2007, p. 173), it is dependent on a certain amount of corroboration from the biological perspective, amongst others (cited in Holloway et al, 2007, pp. 84). (22) Whereas the biological and evolutionary perspectives agree that biological sex lies at the heart of explaining gender, the social constructionist perspective explicitly rejects that view; sometimes for political reasons (cited in Holloway et al, 2007, pp. 185; see Spence, 1984 and Spender, 1980). Social constructionism regards both sex and gender as characteristics that are revealed only through discourse and action. They are a consequence of the individual's behaviour and experience in a given cultural, social and historical context (ibid).The depth of the conflict is exemplified by a comparison of evolutionary studies that emphasise cross-cultural stability in part icular sexual preferences (cf. Singh 1995, p. 148; Buss and Schmitt, 1993, p. 148, cited in Holloway et al, 2007) and social constructionist ideas such as Bem's (1994, cited in Holloway et al, 2007, p. 153) Gender Schema Theory. Crucially, for the social constructionist gender is something that is continually re-established throughout the lifetime of the individual (cited in Holloway et al, 2007, pp. 153). From the biological and evolutionary perspectives, it is predetermined. 33) Whilst the psychodynamic perspective largely complements the social constructionist, in terms of its interpretive or hermeneutic methodology, its explanations largely focus on the unconscious given that its objects of study entail â€Å"the meaning of the biological differences between men and women and how these become internalised in the child's mind† (cited in Holloway et al, 2007, pp. 184).Thus both the social constructionist and psychoanalytic perspectives conflict with the biological and evolu tionary approaches at the methodological level. Uniquely however (ibid, p. 86) the psychodynamic perspective recognises both biological and cultural contributions to it's theorising. It is not without its share of conflict however. Within the perspective, Freudian notions of the opposite sexed p arent as ‘sexual object of choice' and ‘penis envy' (ibid, p. 161f) quickly came under scrutiny of female and feminist psychologists (cf. Horney, 1926, cited in Holloway et al, 2007, p. 163). There is also conflict with evolutionary explanations of rape as an adaptive strategy (compare Thornhill and Palmer, 2000 and Rose and Rose, 2000 cited in Holloway et al, 2007, p. 71, p. 172). (26) Turning to a consideration of the study of language and meaning, one finds an equally intriguing mix of potential co-existence, complement and conflict when comparing the three principal perspectives. The evolutionary perspective sets out to explore the origins of language and its implications for the human species; the cognitive perspective adopts an information processing approach to the transmission of meaning; and the social constructionist perspective focuses on â€Å"meaning making† as a dynamic between interlocutors (cited in Cooper and Kaye, 2007, p. 119).It is possible therefore to view the three perspectives as at least co-existent. Their objects of knowledge are different and one might expect their cumulative product to contribute to some sort of unified theory. Indeed, from the evolutionary perspective Deacon (1997, Cooper and Kaye, 2007, p. 115) suggests that language is a social phenomenon that defies explanation only in psychological, or only in neuro-biological terms. (9) However, the potential for conflict between the cognitive and social constructionist perspectives is revealed in how they view meaning as the object of knowledge.For the former it is something that is constructed internally by the individual prior to transmission, and subsequently rec onstructed by the audience. For the latter it is negotiated as a result of discourse between individuals – meaning emerges as the result of a complex interplay of intentions, interpretations and power-relations. Thus, there is cause for disagreement as to what â€Å"meaning† is and where it comes from (cited in Cooper and Kaye, 2007, p. 102). That this is adequate to justify a claim of conflict seems weak since the types of â€Å"meaning† espoused by the two perspectives are themselves different.Further, at the level of common sense they are mutually sustaining. The very notion of discourse requires at least two participants seeking, though perhaps not achieving, a consensus of meaning. This demands that at some level each participant is cognising about their intended meaning and how the other is construing it. The implication is that the two perspectives ought to complement the other, or at least co-exist. (6) A key social constructionist argument against a pur ist cognitive perspective is that linguistic (and other cognitive) processes cannot be â€Å"transparently reported† (cited in Cooper and Kaye, 2007, p. 11). This argument is one that cognitive researchers have long acknowledged.Commenting on early research into the cognitive modelling of language Boden (1977, pp. 113ff, et passim) notes that a person's understanding of language in a given instance is dependent, not simply on their knowledge of the world around them, but crucially on their understanding of their relationship with their interlocutors. Other researchers emphasise the point (cf. Sperber and Wilson, 1986, cited in Cooper and Kaye, 2007, p. 99). For their part, social constructionists such as Edwards et al (1992, p. 42, cited in Cooper and Kaye, 2007, p. 112) recognise the importance of the cognitive perspective and suggest only that theirs is a new perspective that offers different insights. Therefore, unless a researcher is determined to hold to one or the other perspective as a matter of purist dogma, it seems more reasonable given the disparate loci of the respective objects of knowledge and the statements that each perspective favourably acknowledges the other, then the cognitive and social constructionist perspectives are thus far co-existent. (32)Within the evolutionary perspective there is a debate as to whether language evolved as an adaptational advantage and was the foundation for other cognitive abilities (Pinker, 2000 cited in Cooper and Kaye, 2007, p. 121), or as a consequence of selection for an ability to form and manipulate predictive metarepresentations (Sperber, 2000 cited in Cooper and Kaye, 2007, p. 121). These are polarised and conflicting views. Pinker's would complement the cognitive perspective with its emphasis on information processing, whilst Sperber would complement the social constructionist.However, Deacon (1997) offers evidence that both capacities evolved in parallel. If he is correct, then there are substant ial grounds for seeking a complementary accommodation between the cognitive and social constructionist paradigms. (6) Even from this scant evaluation, one is struck by the disparate objects of knowledge, types of theory and methodologies. The inevitable conclusion is that psychology is characterised by perspectives that at one or more of these levels conflict, co-exist or complement.One might wish for a parallel to the cosmologist's search for a Unified Theory of Matter; where although theories might diverge cosmology has one over-arching object of study and one comprehensive methodology in computational empiricism. Psychologists do not stand on such substantial bedrock. The questions they pose are often difficult to formulate computationally without reducing the predictive power of any solution, or indeed are abstractions that cannot be treated computationally without trivialising them (see Sundem, 2006 for amusing examples).Whereas the history of physics can be measured in thousan ds of years, psychology as a recognisable discipline has existed for just over a century. A sense of internal conflict muted by convenient co-existence and fortunate complement should not therefore come as a disappointment. It is merely an acknowledgement that psychology is still an emerging and diverse field, and that whatever conflict exists can reasonably be attributed to a lack of sufficiently powerful theories with which to reconcile the different perspectives. This essay focuses on the social perspective of psychology referring Language nd Meaning and Gender and Sex. It deals with the relationship between psychological theory and method in a range of material in both chapters, with particular attention to how social influences shape human development and behaviour. Language and Meaning ‘Language and meaning’, is used to describe a social constructionist approach to language. There are several ways in which the social perspective has promoted understanding in this area. There are primarily two different psychological perspectives on language: cognitive and social.These approaches take evidence from different research bodies, each of which have a different focus As social beings, we continuously interact with other people, thinking about our use of language and how it may best serve us. The social constructionist perspective sees language as a way of creating meaning between individuals as they interact. The social psychological perspective defines the human world as being created through language, making it one of its most powerful and important features. This approach to language sees people using language to take action and achieve objectives.Language is seen as a means by which goals might be achieved. The social psychological approaches to language therefore focuses on understanding language and its meanings as a social process. It sees language as an interactive process between people. It is seen as social because it involves this very i nteraction, and it is through this social interaction that meaning is created. Social psychology argues that there is more to language than the knowledge of syntax, semantics, phonics and coding and other rules of language, even if these are described as being interactive within a cognitive approach.This argument helps define the contrast between social psychological and cognitive approaches to language. In social psychological perspectives, the purpose of language is not to reflect thoughts and emotions and convey them neutrally to someone else. Instead, the motivation for language is defined by the desired action brought about by the use of language. Social psychological approaches to language do not place meaning inherently in the constructions of language such as lexicon, grammar or semantics in the same way as cognitive approaches do.One of the methodological complexities involved in researching language is that we must use language itself as the means by which we research it a s a subject in its own right. This issue is at the centre of the tension that exists between cognitive and social approaches to language. The paradox here is that the necessity of responding in language may predetermine what is said about language. The cognitive perspective assumes that there are separate cognitive processes that language can represent in communication to others, or in dialogue with the self.The accuracy of this depends upon how closely language communicates the cognition behind it. Cognitive psychologists believe that the thinking that underlies language can be studied accurately and in social isolation. However, discursive psychology argues that, when people use language, they do so in a social context, with an audience and for a reason. The social constructionist approach views language as the means for the socially produced meaning. It is the means by which people construct their world, interact with others and set out to achieve their objectives.The cognitive a pproach sees language as the part of the cerebral information processing. It can be argued that meaning is generated by people as they communicate. There is therefore a tension between the social constructionist and cognitive perspectives with respect to meaning and whether it is communicated between people or constructed between them. The social constructionist perspective on language is that it is a tool for social interaction. These different views of language have different implications – the cognitive perspective is that language underpins human thought.The social constructionist approach has no particular implication for the relationship of language to thought as it places language firmly within a socially constructed context. Sex and Gender ‘The psychology of sex and gender’, is used to refer to the social constructionist approach to sex and gender. There are several ways in which the social perspective has promoted understanding this area. With respect to the two terms (sex and gender), there is a distinction between the biological and the social.However, biological sex may also be expressed in behaviour that is influenced by social factors and psychological meanings. Therefore, as labels, sex and gender may only be useful as theoretical constructs. However, gender is usually taken to refer to social constructs that pertain to biological differences. These sex differences can be the result of interactions between biological, psychological and social processes. Social constructionist psychology looks at how sex and gender have been constructed within particular social contexts.It examines these social constructions and their influences. The social constructionist perspective is based upon the theory that the construction of meaning through language and social practices as discussed in the section above has produced patterns of behaviour, cognition and emotions that are gender-differentiated. Social constructionism argues that behavio ur cannot be directly explained solely by biological, reproductive sex. It also argues that the world is constructed to have two biological types (male and female) who have many diverse social and behavioural manifestations.This suggests that the many discourses of masculinity and femininity are socially produced. Social constructionism sees reproductive sex as being the visible difference between the sexes that provides the basis for a range of socially constructed gender differences. According to this perspective, biological sex is not central to explaining gender identity, but is a visible indicator to which a range of socially constructed gender differences are attached. Discourses about masculinity and femininity are therefore used by individuals to create their own gendered positionality.Gender is seen as being constructed throughout life, as behaviour and experience is defined through cultural manifestations of gender. Evolutionary psychologists also acknowledge social influe nces on sexual behaviour. However, they provide no systematic way explaining this in their experimental approach. The strength of the social constructionist approach to gender is its ability to take into account the social and cultural contexts of individuals. Evolutionary psychology however does offer some explanation of the origins of gender difference.The social constructionist perspective argues that sex is not central to explaining gender differences. Evolutionary and social constructionist perspectives have contrasting ideas about the relationship between sex and gender. Psychoanalytic psychology takes a different approach to social constructionism’s emphasis on external influences in determining people’s behaviour. However, both social constructionism and psychoanalysis are based upon the interpretation of meaning.Unlike evolutionary psychology, psychoanalysis, in common with social constructionist psychology, believe that the researcher’s positionality a nd subjectivity is inevitably involved in research. The onset of puberty is an example of the convergence of biological, psychoanalytic and social constructionist perspectives. The psychoanalytic and social constructionist approaches use methods that consider people’s beliefs and experiences, and focus on the interpretation of meaning by relying on the interpretation of symbolic data.The social constructionist perspective examines the importance of culture in the construction of gender. The psychoanalytic perspective acknowledges both the importance of biological difference and the social and cultural meanings inherent in this difference. The social constructionist and psychodynamic perspectives may be seen as complementary to each other in terms of methodology, as both use approaches are based on a hermeneutic theory to understand the meanings of gender.Conclusion The social constructionist perspective underpins discursive psychological theories of meaning as emerging from c ontext and interaction. Although the social perspective goes some way to addressing the influences of language and gender issues, there are some aspects which are also given a different perspective by other approaches. This can be seen in the sometimes useful linguistics frameworks of syntax, phonics, semantics etc. which is adopted by cognitive psychologists.In some instances the social perspective complements other perspectives. Such an example is psychoanalysis in the area of sex and gender. However, in other instances it more commonly just co-exists, for example in the case of social constructivism and evolutionary psychology. Social constructivism is in clear conflict with the cognitive perspective in the area of language as illustrated and argued above. Cognitive and social constructionist perspectives make conflicting assumptions about communication.

Changing Behavior Case Study Analysis Essay

A client approached me because he has a serious problem with procrastination. My client has procrastinated most activities that were not comfortable or enjoyable for as far back as he can remember. Procrastinated activities include but are not limited to paying bills, doing homework assignments, making progress on assigned projects in the office, buying presents for birthdays or holidays and scheduling just about anything. Due to this undesirable behavior my client has lost a few jobs, failed out of school and is behind on his mortgage. Of all of these activities my client would like assistance with procrastination as it relates to paying bills since that seems to be the most pressing issue. It should be noted that the procrastination has increased in frequency since childhood. My client blames this behavior for the extraordinary amount of stress in his life. Classical Conditioning: Classical Conditioning could be a source of my client’s procrastination. In classical conditioning an unconditioned stimulus is observed to create an unconditioned response. If a conditioned stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus then eventually the conditioned stimulus will also evoke the same response as the unconditioned stimulus. The response to a conditioned stimulus is called a conditioned response. (Morris, C., & Maisto, 2013) In my client’s case the unconditioned stimulus was paying bills with the family as a child. Money was tight in his family and the lack of money caused many arguments. The arguments resulted in very stressful situations that my client wanted to avoid. To put this in terms of classical conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus was the lack of money. The unconditioned response was an argument that caused stress that my client tried to avoid. Since the arguments over money happened primarily when it was time to pay bills the condition ed stimulus became paying off bills. The conditioned response was to avoid the stress caused by paying bills by procrastinating. The repeated pairing of the stress from arguing while paying bills strengthened the desire to avoid the situation resulting in the  habitual behavior problem of procrastination. Had the stress from arguing occurred only occasionally over bills, also known as intermittent pairing (Morris, C., & Maisto, 2013), then it may have been less likely that my client would procrastinate his bill paying. In this scenario you could compare my client’s procrastination with the results from Pavlov’s experiment with his dogs. Pavlov’s experiment measured how much his dogs would salivate when food was introduced. The food and salivation were the unconditioned stimulus and unconditioned response respectively. Pavlov also rang a bell each time he fed the dogs. After some time Pavlov noticed that his dogs would salivate when the bell rang even if there was no food present. In this way the bell became the conditioned stimulus that elicited the conditioned response of the dogs saliv ating. (Morris, C., & Maisto, 2013) Operant Conditioning: If we look at my client’s behavior from the perspective of operant conditioning then we have to determine if there were reinforcers or punishers that affected the desired, or undesired, behavior. To explain how operant conditioning could cause procrastination we first need to define reinforcers and punishers. In Operant conditioning a reinforcer is some sort of stimulus that is introduced after the desired behavior that encourages the behavior. A punisher on the other hand is a stimulus that is introduced after the behavior in order to discourage the behavior. Thorndike’s Law of Effect states that behavior that is rewarded often will be â€Å"stamped in† and that behavior that causes some sort of discomfort will be â€Å"stamped out†. (Morris, C., & Maisto, 2013) Using the same example we used for classical conditioning, we will discuss my client’s undesired behavior of procrastinating bill payments using an operant conditioning scenario. In this case paying bills was the behavior. The punisher was the yelling and arguing that caused the feeling of stress. Due to continued exposure to the â€Å"stress of paying bills† my client developed an aversion to paying them. Thus his procrastination could be considered an operant behavior. This is backed up by Thorndike’s Law of Effect as stated above. (Morris, C., & Maisto, 2013) Cognitive and Social Learning Theories: The social learning theories can be applied to my client’s undesired behavior of procrastination and in my opinion may make more sense than the other two theories of operant and classical conditioning. As a child my client was exposed to the stress caused by lack of money that my client related to bills. My client learned the behavior that bills were not fun to pay and should be avoided at an early age. This is a blend of cognitive and social learning. My client did not realize that he had learned to avoid paying bills. This is an example of latent learning since the behavior was learned but had not been demonstrated yet. Edward Chace Tolman was a pioneer in cognitive learning theories who theorized that learning does not have to be observable in order for it to have occurred. (Morris, C., & Maisto, 2013). The effect of the unpleasant bill paying experiences was observed from the actions of the parents. My client was not actually paying bills as a child so the behavior was obs erver, or learned vicariously, from the parents as they paid bills. Specifically my client observed a vicarious punishment for the act of paying bills which resulted in a desire to avoid the stress involved in paying bills. This latent behavior manifested later in life as procrastination. Recommendation: While there are options available with each theory discussed above I would recommend an operant conditioning solution for my client. A reinforcer could be added to the bill paying process in order to make the behavior of paying bills on time more pleasant. The reward would need to be practical but significant enough to overcome the anticipated stress that my client associates with paying bills. Over time the act of paying bills will be associated with pleasant results rather than the stress of his childhood. Thorndike would probably say this behavior is â€Å"Stamped In† to my client once we are finished with the conditioning. References Morris, C., & Maisto, A. (2013). Understanding psychology (10th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.

Causes of Conflict

Scarce resources are very important to the country. It is a source of revenue for the country and it can be sold off for money and as raw resources for industrialization. Thus, countries would want to compete for scarce resources. An example would be the Iceland-britian conflict. As Iceland depends on the fishing industry for survival, its source of revenue comes from the fish caught. In 1970s, the number of fish, especially cod, dropped by 1/3 and these were due to the over fishing of Belgium, german and britian on Iceland seas. Thus, Iceland has came up with measures in controlling the number of fish caught to the UN but most were ignored. As 79% of the total export comprises of fresh fish and fish products, it is important for Iceland to maintain a sustainable levels of fish stocks in the seas around Iceland. Source of economic survivals is threatened, Iceland had to fight to ensure that this source of natural resource is sustained. This conflict resulted in Iceland breaking displomatic ties with britian. When a country’s scarce resources is being threatened, they have to fight back as it is their main source of revenue and survival. Losing the main source of scarce resource ewould lead to economic downfall, jobs and livelihood at stake resulting in poverty Different values and benefits. Countries fight over different values and benefits due when they feel that it is being threatened by others. This is evident in the Korean war. Korea is being separated into 2 halves in the 38th parallel after the Japanese surrended in the 1945. The Russian occupied the north of parallel and the American occupied the south of parallel. Attempt of un to establish a single government failed as the north parallel did not want to have an election in the north. North korea was then created and became a communist party whereas south korea was then created and became democratic party. Both the government claimed that they both have the rights to rule the Korean peninsula. China, afraid that the north korea would be influenced by the south korea’s democractic system, helped and supported north korea in the war of north korea and south korea to spread communism. This showed that when countries come into conflict to extend their balue systems to other territories and also protect their value systems from being threatened to fight back

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Assginment due 1 aug - Assignment Example Retirement means a different thing to almost every person who chooses to retire. The reasons for retirement, the age of retirement, and the financial health of the individual are all relevant to the decision. What one choses to do after retirement will have an effect on the health of the individual as they choose to be more sedentary or choose to pursue activities (Miller, 2010). Comparing two people who have gone into retirement at different times of life and for different number of years since retirement shows that the experience has some commonalities to general statistics, but is unique for how the individuals feel about their experience and how they have approached the event. In looking at the retirement of Cathy and Kim, the event reveals some conclusions about how to approach retirement while also expressing how the experience is individual. Cathy is a retired teacher who entered into retirement four years ago. She entered teaching because of the incentives that were being given at the time and was happy to retire early, her pension and saving providing for enough of a nest egg that she could afford to retire at the age of 52. She felt that she had given her best to teaching and had come to a place where she no longer had the same kind of enthusiasm for the profession that had once been a source of energy for her as she had enlightened students. One of her favorite moments with a student had been to see that light go on in their eyes as they came to an understanding that they had not previously had before she had given them that knowledge. That moment had not been bringing her the same kind of fulfillment and she felt it was time to move on to other pursuits. She did not really feel retired, but more that she had entered a new phase in her life. She did not really miss teaching as she had continued to teach as a volunteer, providing art instruction at a school district where budget cuts had eliminated the art education. Cathy

Before and After the Cellphone Essay Example for Free

Before and After the Cellphone Essay Cellphones have gradually become an imperative part of peoples lives today. 70% of the worlds population have cellphones. These days, people and their mobile phones seem to be inseparable. Texting or calling someone when we wake up has become a usual habit just like brushing our teeth in the morning. For many of us, its hard to imagine a time before cellphones. Having a cellphone has changed our manners, the way we communicate, and our safety. Before cellphones there seemed to be more peace and quite. People seemed to have manners. Today people dont always remember their manners when using their cellphones. People constantly carrying on personal conversations in a public place can be very annoying. Some people talk really loud and dont care that everyone around them can hear every word they are saying. It can be extremely disturbing to someone when they are walking in a mall or down a street and someone starts speaking right beside or behind them. They turn to respond, only to find out he or she beside them has an earbud active. Before we had cellphones people would actually write letters. During my elementary school days it was â€Å"cool† to pass notes. We actually used complete sentences and words that were in the dictionary. Also before cellphones if someone was to leave the house, they didn’t make a phone call unless they popped 10 cents into a pay phone. People never received any calls away from home. People actually had to be out of touch with friends and family when they weren’t at home. Now that we have cell phones letters are rarely sent. Today note passing is rare. If kids want to communicate during school they simply just shoot each other a text message. Also, today if someone is to leave the house, making a phone call is easy. With a quick dial on a cellphone people can make a call at any time. Cellphones have not only changed the way we communicate but they have changed our safety. Texting and driving has become common and has caused many deaths in the United States. It was reported in 2005 that cellphone distraction causes 2,600 deaths and 330,000 injuries in the United States every year. Another safety issue with cellphones is privacy. Say someone’s at an airport, or on the bus. Several people are on their cellphones, some talking business, and others talking about personal information. Any information shared has now become available to anyone else who might have been around to hear their phone call. Others may now know their address, information about their family, or financial records. Before cellphones life were more safe. Before cell phones people didn’t have to constantly worry about someone overhearing their conversation. Also people didn’t have to worry about others driving them off the road because of the careless mistake of texting while driving. The cellphone is loved by many and hated by the few for ruining society. Although cellphones have changed society I have a hard time imagining my life without one. Cellphones have had a major impact on our lives and have vastly changed our manners, the way we communicate and our safety. Many of these changes are apparent, while others we may not even be aware of.

Theories of Adolescent Risk Taking

Theories of Adolescent Risk Taking Adolescence is seen as a period when an individual is unable to competently assess risk. There is a general belief that adolescents believe that they are invulnerable to risk thereby unable to perceive certain behaviors. Because of this, adolescents are adjudged to be less aware of risk. This provides the reason the reason why there are legal limitations on adolescents’ right (Bellotti, 1979, Gardner, Scherer Tester, 1989). On the other hand, some view adolescents as having the capability to making informed and competent decisions as adults (Melton, 1984). This means that some see adolescents as seeing themselves as invulnerable. This idea is supported by Elkind’s theory (1967, 1978). In this theory, Elkind argues that people become cognitively egocentric when they first enter into formal operations. Because of this, adolescents believe that they are unique and special making them immune to certain things. They see themselves as invulnerable to harm. This geocentricism and invulnerability are expected to reduce as the individual moves from middle to late adolescents. But some believe that this theory on geocentricism is not associated with adolescence transition into formal operations, and that it is not limited to adolescence alone (Frankenbreger, 2000, Gray Hudson, 1984). In addition, research has not found any positive correlation between geocentricism and perception of invulnerability (Dolcini et al., 1989). Social researches on adolescence have not been helpful in resolving the debate between adolescents’ perception of invulnerability to risk and adolescents’ competence. There are numerous inconsistent studies on this issue. There are factors that may be responsible for these inconsistencies. According to Millstein and Halpern-Felsher (2002), these inconsistencies maybe due to the methods used to measure risk perception. Some researchers used probabilistic assessment, that is, the chance that an outcome will occur (Quadrel et al., 1993, Gochman Saucier, 1982) while other researchers like Finn and Brown (1981, Cohn, Macfarlane et al. (1995) examined adolescents’ perception about harm, that is â€Å"the amount of harm that could be caused(p. 401). This has the ability to cause disparity between the studies and also questions the validity of these findings. Another cause of this disparity is failure of researchers to consider behavioral experiences across ages and control for it. While some of the earlier studies that focused on adolescents’ age group and those that compared adolescents and adults found a significant difference in awareness of and consideration of risks (Ambuel Rappaport, 1992, Chassin et al., 2001), some others found few differences. One of the studies that did not support the idea of adolescents’ invulnerability is the one conducted by Millster and Halpern-Felsher (2002). In their studies, they took into account the above identified problems in studying adolescents and young adults risk perception. While other researchers used participants’ parents to measure comparison between adolescents and adults risk perception, these researchers use unrelated childless adult to eliminate this problem. Their reason for using unmarried young childless adults was because those with children may have a greater awareness of risk because of their positions as parents compared to childless and non parent/unmarried young adults.This is because using adolescent participants’ parents may create problem of non independence between the groups. They used 433 adolescents and 144 young adults between the ages of 20 30 as comparison group from racially diverse population and from geographically and demographically similar area. They tried to find out age differences in risk judgement and if adolescents risk judgment differ from those of adults, and if vulnerability perceptions to harm are more prevailed in adolescents than adults. In the result, they found a significant difference between young adults’ and adolescents’ risk judgment. Also, there was a significant age group differences between older adolescents and younger adolescents. Older adolescents assessed probability of negative outcome to be lower than younger adolescents. The study challenges the general belief that due to adolescents’ developmental status, they view themselves as invulnerable as well as underestimate risk. Adolescents don’t see themselves as invulnerable, though they may fail to perceive specific risk related to a specific behavior, and at the same time, may over estimate the benefit of such behavior. Even after controlling for behavioral experiences, younger adolescents perception of risk was greater than older adolescents, and adolescents perceived greater risk that young adults. Because younger adolescents have been taught that engaging in risky behavior results in significant risk, they are likely to be lieve it (Millstein Helperin-Felsher, 2001). But with increased exposure to peer risk behavior coupled with maturation, adolescents are able to observe that not all risky behaviors have a negative outcome. The researchers observed that the participants over estimated risk. Young people already have a sense of heightened vulnerability and that continuous emphasis on the negative outcome of risk might be counterproductive, in that it might conflict with adolescents’ own experiences as they might realize that not all risky behaviors result in negative outcome. The result of this study is in contrast with the popular belief that adolescents perceive risk less than adults do and that adolescents also see themselves as invulnerable. Another research that is consistent with the above finding is the work done by Baumgartner and Peter (2010). They investigated adolescents’ and adults’ perception of internet risk, especially online sexual risk. Previous studies on online risks founf that adolescents are vulnerable (Mitchell, Finkellor Wolak, 2001, 2007b, Yabarra, Mitchell, Finkellor, Wolak, 2007). These findings are based on the assumption that adolescents are massive internet users. There are scientific/research evidence to prove that adolescents are more vulnerable online that adults and that adolescents reported a very negative feeling such as being afraid from online sexual solicitation (Mitchell et al., 2001). Some reasons for this unwanted online sexual solicitation include the fact that due to adolescents’ massive developmental changes at his stage, the need to relate to others increases thereby making them vulnerable to unwanted sexual solicitation (Singelman Rider, 2003). On the other hand, adults may not be keen on interacting with strangers, thereby decreasing the risk of unwanted sexual solicitation. Another reason for this vulnerability is that adolescents spend more time online and this may increase their chances of receiving unwanted online sexual solicitation (Jones Fox, 2009). The empirical evidence to support that adolescent take greater risk than adolescents have been inconsistent. The difference between adults and adolescents risk perception may be because adolescents today are more familiar with internet amd newer social networks compared to adults. In their study of 1765 Dutch adolescents and 1026 Dutch adults, done through online survey, Baumgartner and Peter (2010) investigated age and gender differences in unwanted online sexual solicitation. The result showed that female adolescents and young female adults are at the greatest risk of this online harassment. This may be because of the specific online activities that they are involved in, or may be because they are just the targets of these perpetrators. A reason for this may be because these groups of people use the internet as a means of communication rather than for entertainment, and the the use of internet for chatting increases the chance of unwanted sexual solicitation. Because one of the cha llenges during adolescence is identity formation, these adolescents may use the internet to relate to others by self disclosure or to share intimate details (Mazur Kozarian, 2010, Calvert, 2002). They also found that young girls find this undesirable and may be more emotionally and cognitively vulnerable to such messages compared to older female adult. This means that adolescent girls feel vulnerable with such behaviors, this is in contrast to the general belief that adolescents perceive some behaviors as risky. An emerging adult may cope better in such situation, but an inexperienced adolescent may be more vulnerable and may need protection than adults. There was also evidence of increased online risk for older adolescents male and adults compared to younger adolescents. This may be because as one gets older, one partakes in more risky behavior compared to when one was younger. This is evidence against the notion of adolescents’ invulnerability. Another reason for this increased online sexual risk found among older adolescents and adults may be because sexual interest does not decline with age or after adolescence, and sexuality being an important part of adults, engaging in online sexual risk may help satisfy these sexual needs. Though these evidence that adolescents do not engage in more risk than adults does not mean or suggest that adolescents’ behaviors should be neglected. Risk behaviors are interpreted differently by adolescents and adults (Parsons et al., 1997). It is seen as a normal thing when adults give out private information about themselves online based on the assumption that adults can handle any negative consequence from such behavior unlike adolescents, such behaviors may be frowned at because any negative outcome may be detrimental and may affect their normal development. In addition, although risk may have potential negative outcome, it also serves an important cause in adolescent development (Jessor, 1992, Igra Irwin, 1996) as it helps adolescents develop autonomy and maturity. It also helps in coping with anxiety and frustration. Online sexual risk may also help adolescents in developing their sexual identity. Hence, online sexual risk behavior should not be viewed as detrimental to adolescents, but it could also serve to facilitate healthy development. This study shows that adolescents, especially younger adolescents are risk aware, and that the fear of adults about adolescents’ online sexual risk behaviors is unfounded. A study by Haase and Silbereisen (2011) linked the effect of negative affect on adolescents’ risk perception. This study is in contrast to the above studies that adolescents have a higher risk perception than adults. And that this depends on the affect. That perception depends on our mood or emotion either positive or negative. Other studies have linked positive affect to lower risk perception (Johnson Tversky, 1983). This means that adolescents who are emotionally open are influenced by this. The Haase and Silbereisen (2011) study examined the effect of positive affect on adolescents’ and adults’ risk perception. The study involved the use of audio-visual method to induce emotion. Research has shown that negative emotion leads to a higher risk taking, because the individual tries to overcome the bad mod through engaging in activities that are rewarding in short run and can potentially have harmful effect on the long run (Tice, Bratslavsky Baumeister, 2001). Bu t from the result of the study, they found that when an individual is in a good mood, he is less likely to perceive some risky behaviors like smoking and alcohol drinking as risky. The study also examined the effect of mood across age groups. It was found that positive affect lowers risk perception across age groups, whereas negative affect led to lower risk perception among mid adolescents but did not for early adolescents and young adults. This may be because developmentally, mid adolescents have a high stress vulnerability (Spear, 2000), and a higher risk taking (Steinberg, 2008). Therefore, it has been shown that affective influences play a big role in adolescents risk taking. When adolescents are in good mood and excited, they tend to indulge in risky behaviors or they may judge some behaviors as risk free. Because previous studies have used questionnaire to assess adolescents’ risk taking, using experiment showed that adolescents partake in risk behavior and that this risk taking is influenced by affect either positive or negative. This means that adolescents and adults may be more risk averse when they are faced with situations that do not give rise to great emotions, and this may not be captured in questionnaire study. This result in conflicting findings on adolescents risk taking, but using experimental design may show the real situation when the adolescents are faced with strong emotions. Feelings may alter risk perception.

Valuation of Supersize me Essay examples -- Morgan Spurlock Super Size

Evaluation of Super Size Me   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Americans are fat and growing fatter with each passing day. One does not have to do look far to see how fat we are. Take a stroll to the supermarket, college campuses, offices, playgrounds, fast food restaurants, or malls and see the evidence of fat America. What is causing this epidemic of obesity? There are a plethora of reasons including overeating, lack of exercise, fast food, processed food, dieting, and sedentary lifestyles. Morgan Spurlock of New York City decided to tackle one aspect of this problem with his idea of studying the McDonald’s way by limiting his intake of food for one month to only McDonald’s and filming this adventure. The result is the movie Super Size Me. Spurlock finds that the McDonald’s way is a super highway to fat city.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Mr. Spurlock followed three rules as during this journey; he could only eat what was available over the counter, including water, no super sizing unless it was offered, and he had to eat and try every item at least once. But before Spurlock hit the roads throughout the United States interviewing Surgeon Generals to gym teachers, cooks to kids, and lawmakers to legislators, all in 20 cities (including Houston which is known as the â€Å"fattest city† in America) he went to numerous doctors and nutritionists and every one told him that he was in shape and in good health. While making the film, Spurlock consumed in 30 days as much McDonald’s as most nutritionists would advise to have in 8 years. He revealed to the American public the truth about fast food. Something many already knew, but found it easier to avoid the fattening truth. Today 1 in 4 Americans visit a fast food restaurant on a daily basis. About 95% of the commercials that children see are for foods filled with sugars and fats. Children are bombarded with images of fast food by media advertising. Most Americans understand the marketing strategy of McDonald's -- appealing to the young. From an early age children are lured into McDonald’s by promotions of toys, actions figures, yummy food packaged into Happy Meals, and small on site playgrounds. The food is fast, comparatively cheap, and hot. In the film Spurlock interviewed a family in front of the White House and asked them to recite the Pledge of the Allegiance. After they wearily recited it, the family was asked about their memories of McDonald’s. Their faces lit... ...e are those folks that will eat there every day let alone numerous times a week. In 1972, we spent 3 billion a year on fast food - today we spend more than 110 billion. Ironically Americans spend all kinds of money trying to lose weight each year, but need to concentrate on exercise, eating healthy, and cutting out fast food. Overweight Americans need to empower themselves and stop talking about being fat, and get moving on some simple solutions like eating less and moving more.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  After this movie was shown at a film festival McDonalds stopped super sizing 6 weeks later and introduced the â€Å"Go Active!† meal. The results on Spurlock may have been extraordinary on how quickly he gained weight and how his body and health were slowly deteriorating, but this shows why so many Americans are overweight and the way they are. Everything, even the little â€Å"healthy† options are jam packed with sugars and calories. This might also explain why 60% of the population is overweight or obese. Super Size Me. Dir. Morgan Spurlock. Perf. Morgan Spurlock. 2004. DVD. Samuel Goldwin Films, 2004. â€Å"Super Size Me by the Pound†. Super Size Me: A Film of Epic Proportions. 8 Mar. 2004. .

The Internet and the Justice System :: Government Judicial Web Cyberspace Essays

The Internet and the Justice System I. Introduction. The American legal system has faced many challenges in the past century, mainly due to population growth throughout the nation. The American ‘way-of-life’ has also changed significantly as a result. The legislative and judicial systems need to adapt to these developments. These include advances in information technology, particularly the Internet. This expanding communication network has created different behavioral patterns within our society. This paper will examine some of these changes and try to determine if indeed changes are in order. Issues will be presented from the public manager’s perspective and the position of the justice system, relative to their affect upon citizens. Is it necessary to institute some form of desirable control or regulation over the Internet? If so, will an inordinate amount of public freedom be sacrificed in the process? These questions will be addressed, along with analyzing present policy and possible directions for future legislation. II. The Internet Defined. Public Manager’s Perspective. The introduction of the Internet as an additional mass communication media has created new alternatives for information transmission. The ensuing popularity of the Internet has created many challenges that the public sector must deal with. Estimates in 1999 found that there are approximately 171 million Internet users worldwide (Group Computing, Jan/Feb 2000, p. 56). Change in the societal environment has made the Internet an integral part of the American economy. Privatization. An interesting historical paradox is that, although the Internet has U.S. Defense Department origins, it is scarcely perceived as a public utility by most users anymore. (Abrahamson, JMQC vol 75, no 1, p. 16) Public reaction to the specific and continuing privatization of the Internet has been anything but an organized protest. Greater portions of it have, in name as well as effect, become privatized by larger corporations. This includes Microsoft, the largest player in the nation’s information technology marketplace. This conglomerate is widely recognized as a commercial enterprise with well-documented monopolistic tendencies. Justice System’s Perspective. The justice system must consider the legal issues. New technology has led to a societal issue that must be interpreted in its relevance to the First Amendment. The justice system is supposed to guarantee the rights of every citizen, yet has instead elected to offer more protection to private entities first. These include private companies such as newspaper publishers or, in this instance, the private enterprises found on the Internet.

Crabs For The Crabber :: essays research papers

Crabs For the Crabber   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Would you like to learn how to make around two hundred dollars a day for going out in the boat and crabbing for a few hours? Once you gain the experience of a commercial crabber, you can earn as much as you want. All it takes is a little time and effort to learn the basic steps, and, of course, the love of the water. For the last two years, I have kept the books for my boyfriend's crabbing business. I helped him from the beginning when we purchased the traps to today, when he is now running 150 traps.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  On the boat, you should always have as many life jackets as people. Flares and a marine radio should also be on the boat in case of an emergency. For instance, if you are five miles out over the ocean and the boat runs out of gas, you could light a flare and reach some help on the marine radio. You should also keep an oar on the boat at all times. This would come in handy if your boat is stuck in mud, or if the boat breaks down in the small creeks near your dock. I also recommend that you have crabbing gloves and rubber overalls from Boater's World. The gloves have special rubber tips that help reduce the pain if a crab pinches you. The overalls will protect your clothes from getting drenched and muddy. The last thing that you should never leave the dock without is plenty of liquids to drink. I recommend Gatorade or water, but no soft drinks. It is very hot on the boat and fluids are a necessity so that you do no dehydrate.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Before you can start crabbing, you need certain materials. The most important is a commercial license to sell crabs. A license can be purchased from the Game Warden in Richmond Hill. You must go early in the year because they only sell a limited number. Once you have a license and your personal number for your traps, you need a large flat bottom boat with a powerful motor. I recommend a Yamaha Salt Water Series. This motor is very reliable and can handle the long hours put on it. You should also buy a wench and have it bolted to the side of the boat. The wench is not necessary, but is will save a lot of time and effort to pull up all of the traps. A dolly should be kept on the dock to take the boxes of crabs to the truck.

Case #1: Cca (Board of Directors)

BUSN7045: Corporate Governance Case Study 1 Jiachen Lyu u5264027 1 Evaluation of the Board of Directors of Coca-Cola Amatil Jiachen Lyu Student ID: u5264027 1. Basic analysis – a macro perspective From the publicly open information, the member composition of the Board Of Directors (BOD) of Coca-Cola Amatil (CCA) can be summarised as the following table (Table 1- 1). It can be easily seen that non-executive directors account for the majority of the board.According to Tricker (1994), this particular composition is of a typical American kind, which is specifically designed to emphasis the independence among members in the board and their loyalty to the shareholders. Table 1-1 Composition of Board of Directors Compan y Name Total direc tor No. Executi ve director Nonexecuti ve directo r Composition of non-executive directors Exper t direct ors Chairma n of other compani es Investment agency representati ves Individu al investor s Coca- Cola Amatil 9 1 8 8 2 3 0 However, it is wort h noting that this particular formation is a result of the highly developed American capital market.In such a market, the frequency of hostile takeover is so common a market phenomenon that masks the lack of BOD’s function. In American companies’ management practice, people focus more on centralisation and expert system, which reduces the importance of executive directors. Comparing with the U. S. , both the turnover of Australian stock market and the frequency of hostile takeover are low, which posts a shadow on the adaption of Cola’s American empirical practice into Australia. 2. Focus on non-executive directorsThe non-executive directors are directors who are employed from the outside. They are normally specialist in areas such as strategic management, finance, investment, legal and public relation. In order to better fulfil the duties of a BOD, National Association of Corporate Directors Blue Ribbon Commission emphasises that each director should contribute his knowledge in at least a field listed below: (1) accounting and finance, (2) judgment, (3) management skills, (4) crisis response, (5) industrial knowledge, (6) experience in international markets, (7) leadership, and (8) strategic vision.According to this point of BUSN7045: Corporate Governance Case Study 1 Jiachen Lyu u5264027 2 view, it can be analysed from the information available on the CCA’s website as Table 2-1: Table 2-1 Appraisal of CCA’s non-executive directors D. G . I. A . C. B . A. F . M. J . G. K . W. K. D. M . Judgment Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Management skills Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Crisis Response Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Industrial Knowledge N N N Y Y Y N N Experience in the international market N N N Y Y Y N NLeadership Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Strategic vision Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Abbreviation: David Gonski (D. G. ), Ilana Atlas (I. A. ), Catherine Brenner (C. B. ), Anthony Froggatt (A. F. ), Martin Jansen (M. J. ), Geoffrey Kelly (G. K. ), Wal King (W. K. ), David Meiklejohn (D. K. ). From Table 2-1, it is clear that some finance and law background non-executive directors (i. e. D. G. and I. A. ) lack of knowledge in beverage industry and have little experience in international markets.When they were facing situations that need industrial judgement and global vision, the limit of their knowledge would be likely to hurt the interest of shareholders. Most non-executive directors, due to their insufficient knowledge about the inner working of the company, tend to rely on financial criteria rather than innovation criteria to evaluate the long-term management of the enterprise, which may lead to short-sighted decisions and further hurt the goodwill and innovation of CCA.Furthermore, most aforementioned non-executive directors are quite busy as they may be managers of other companies or partners of investment banks, they therefore do not have sufficient time to collect detailed management information about CCA. Consequently, the most probable channel of their source of CCA’s information is from the managers. Ironically, while the purpose of establishing a BOD is to solve principleagent problems between the ownership and management, the possible information asymmetry between manager and BOD (thanks to the large proportion of busy nonexecutive directors) may result this vehicle into null.From a strategic perspective, on the other hand, all these non-executive directors as experts in finance, investment, legal issues and science have long term experience, most of whom are over 50 year’s old. They can provide more specific knowledge and advice in terms of strategic management. This is the positive effect of having eight nonexecutive directors in the BOD of CCA. References: Bol Tricker. , Corporate Governance, An International View, p. 20, Prentice Hall, 1994.

Charles Dickens’s life Essay

How does Dickens create an atmosphere of mystery and fear in chapters 1 and 39 of â€Å"Great Expectations†? Great Expectations is a book written in 1861, by Charles Dickens. But the book is narrated by a boy called Pip; a main character in the novel, who grows up as the story goes on. The novel is about Pip growing up and moving to London to become a gentleman. But there are many twists in the story such as the convict that he meets in the first chapter, is actually paying his expenses to become a gentleman. Great Expectations is written as a semi autobiographical style novel. Dickens wrote it as he felt troubled at this certain time of his life, and needed some kind of physical and emotional support. In the first chapter, we don’t know much about Pip’s life. We know that Pip is alone in the churchyard. â€Å"This bleak place, overgrown with nettles, was the churchyard. † This shows that Dickens is describing the churchyard as a dark and sinister place, therefore creating a sense of mystery and fear. Pip then surprisingly meets the convict. â€Å"†Hold your noise! † cried a terrible voice, as a man started up from among the graves† This shows that Dickens is creating fear by the abruptness of the order. Dickens uses comedy in beginning of this chapter with, â€Å"I religiously entertained that they had all been born on their backs with their hands in their trousers-pockets, and had never taken them out in this state of existence. † This shows that Dickens has got some humour as these boys would never have had a chance to do this, because they died very early on. Dickens also uses pathetic fallacy with, â€Å"angry, red lines and dense black lines intermixed. † This shows that he uses pathetic fallacy to emphasise the violence of the convict’s actions. To do this he also uses slightly emotive language; â€Å"angry. † Between the end of this chapter and chapter 39, Pip experiences a series of events. He finds food for the convict, and he is extremely grateful for it, but word gets out that he is around and everyone finds him, so he is sent away. Pip gets invited to Miss Havisham’s house to â€Å"play† where he meets Estella, which at first sight, falls in love with her. Later on, he meets Herbert Pocket a lively young chap that challenges Pip to a fight and loses without a doubt. A few years later he is an apprentice of Joe, when suddenly Mr. Jaggers walks in and proposes an opportunity for Pip to travel to London, and learn to become a gentleman. Inevitably he takes the opportunity and leaves for London. But when he arrives he sees Mr. Pocket and he is pleasantly surprised. As time passes he becomes a little snobby and when Mr. Joe visits, he feels very unwelcome so decides to leave. In chapter 39 we find Pip is alone because Herbert was on a business trip to Marseilles. So pip wasn’t feeling too happy, as he didn’t particularly like being alone. â€Å"I†¦ had a dull sense of being alone. Dispirited and anxious, long hoping that to-morrow or next week would clear my way†¦ I sadly missed the cheerful face of my friend. † This quotation shows that Dickens is using emotive language, in order for the reader to feel the sadness of Pip. The weather is also reflecting Pip’s feelings. â€Å"Day after day, a heavy veil had been driving over London from the East, and it drove still. † This quotation shows that Dickens is creating a sense of mystery by using pathetic fallacy and emotive language. He also uses a metaphor â€Å"a vast heavy veil†. A veil covers up something which also emphasises the sense of mystery and fear. When Pip meets the convict, his reaction is slow to realise. But when he does; he is surprised, but still queer. â€Å"†Keep off! If you are grateful to me for what I did when I was a little child, I hope you have shown your gratitude by mending your way of life. If you have come here to thank me, it was not necessary. Still, however, you have found me out† This shows that Dickens is creating mystery by making it so that Pip is surprised and half pleased, but still to be fully satisfied. The mystery is solved in this chapter. â€Å"Great Expectations† is influenced by the events occurring in Charles Dickens’s life. I think that his work is still read and valued today, because he has used his own experiences to reflect onto his work. When you put this together with dickens’s style, including his use of emotive language, pathetic fallacy etc. , it creates a unique and amazing style of writing that everyone seems to be able to get into. I think that people are able to do this really easily because his work is mostly based on things that you can’t experience in today’s world. Dickens creates a sense of mystery and fear with many different techniques such as; pathetic fallacy, emotive language and metaphors.

Japanese Family

Japanese family is known for being industrious, hardworking and for being responsible; but they have time for leisure. Japan is instituted through what they call the ie system. The ie or household is considered as the basic unit of Japanese law until the end of World War II. It consists of grandparents, their son and his wife and their children.Each family was required to follow to the ie system, with a multigenerational household under the legal authority of a household head. (Japanese Family† access 2007) This ie system is patterned after the Confucian’s of the upper classes of the Togukawa period.The ie lay legally the authority and responsibility to the household head. Every generation supplied a man and woman , with a preference to acquire by the first son and for the patrilocal marriage. In Japan daughters were expected to get married and the younger sons were expected to establish their own family.Japanese woman have no right to legally own or control property at the same time to choose her man to be her husband. The ie system are very restricted to the development of each individual, women’s rights and most of all the individual rights. During the late World War II, Allied occupation forced to create a new family beliefs based on the equal rights for women , equal rights required by all children and the freedom to choose of spouse and field. In the late 1960’s also most Japan marriages have been based on the mutual feelings and attraction of the couple and not the parents arrangement.Actual negotiations do not start until all the concerned parties including the husband and wife are satisfied with the relationship. Japanese family current lifestyles the husband and wife are satisfied with the relationship. Japanese family current lifestyles is that the father or husband may travel to work and return late.They spend so little time for their children except Sundays which is the favorite day for family outings. While the wives cal led as â€Å"expert or professional wife† which have a total responsibility for raising their children, to guarantee their career and marriages, managing the household and at their children, to guarantee their career and marriages, managing the household and at the same time the family budget. Wife also responsible in maintaining the social relations to their relatives, neighbors and for maintaining and managing the family’s reputation. Social life of wife is separated from that of her husband.She also required to participate in the adult education or other community activities. Mother and the children are the closest emotional ties. The question whether the contemporary Japanese families still have preferences for entertainment during their free time, is obviously an interesting one. Base on research conducted, despite their busy schedule Japanese family are engaged in different forms of entertainment. Fathers in Japan, choose the following entertainment during their free time are singing in the karaoke ,listening in the Japanese music and going to the department stores.They are doing this to make them feel relaxed, enjoyed and satisfied. On the other hand, mothers in Japan are only in the house and much comfortable in serving and cooking for their family. Most of them likes to watch TV movies. They are close to their children just because they are the one staying in the house always. Children in Japan like to watch movies, reading the anime, and listening Japanese music. The two leading forms of entertainment in Japan by family members are the Karaoke and Anime. Japanese love music. They usually sing and dance even though they are not good singers.They like to hear and sing different interesting melodies like â€Å"What a Wonderful World†, Love Spreads†, â€Å"99 Red Balloons†, â€Å"Bigorouf Strikes again†. Karaoke is one of the best choices of entertainment in Japan. Karaoke is very well-known in Japan. â€Å"Karao ke as a form of entertainment†¦, is as much a part of life as music itself. †[For Japanese people]. (Newman, 2001) Japanese Japanese are very passionate in singing in the karaoke. Karaoke have different kind of shows to choose from by amateur and professional. One of the shows is a glance inside the private karaoke rooms.In Japan. And the other one is the Home karaoke systems are located at electronic stores. Fathers in Japan are very busy because of their work but they have also time to enjoy their selves and go to some karaoke bars to sing their. This is the reason why they are returning home very late. Fathers in Japan have so little time for their wife and children but they see to it that they are all together during Sunday, their favorite day for their outing. Not only have the fathers loved to sing in the karaoke also the children specially the youth sing together with their friends They expressed their feelings by singing.Mothers or wives also love music but they o nly sing in the home karaoke, because they are only staying in their house to serve their husbands. Japanese families second choice of entertainment is the Anime. Anime reminds the Japanese culture Good example of this is the Manga which every Japanese people loves specially the Japanese children. Mr. Tezuka Osamo is recognized as the Father of Anime in Japan. He was distinguished as the Mangaka or cartoonist. Tezuka Osamo introduce anime to the TV screen, one of his own Manga on 1963 which is the Tetzuwan Atomu also known in the other country as Astro Boy. (â€Å"Modern Japan â€Å")Other well known cartoonist is the Gundam in the 80’s and Neon Genesis Evangelion on 1995. Japanese had a very eager appetite for Manga or comic books during rush hour on a train. In the West mainstream comics are almost entirely for children. Japanese Manga has different types and some are not appropriate for children. Examples of this are the graphic violence and sex. Two main forms of Manga come weekly, twice-monthly and monthly magazine . style Manga and paper books. Some good examples are in the sections on animated movies and TV cartoons.Japanese used Mangajin, one of a classic magazine as a fun and effective method to learn Japanese. It was promoted last 1990-97, it also contains interesting article on different aspects of Japanese culture. There is a shonen manga which is for young guys and shojo manga which id for young girl. They deal with a science fiction, young guys and shojo manga which id for young girl. They deal with a science fiction sports and romance and tend to portray male. Characters as the male manga do with the male characters. One of the popular female manga is Sailor Moon, which became a very successful TV show.Manga become popular and exceedingly large in Japan. One of the important things learned in this course is the reality of distinct family values among different cultures. That there is a difference between an Asian culture specially to th e Japanese. According to Mr. Yakamoto â€Å"I love singing in karaoke it makes me feel relaxed and happy† Based to Mr. Yakamoto’s statement he chooses karaoke as his entertainment because he find it relaxing and happy. Almost the father in Japan, their choice of entertainment is the karaoke . While in the other Asian country likePhilippines loves to watch movies and play basketball. His wife Mrs. Yakamoto loves to cook and sing in the home karaoke because according to her she wants to give the excellent service to her husband and kids. Their little son Aikihiru Yakamoto says that â€Å"For me my choice of entertainment in our country is the Anime. I really enjoyed reading it. † Based to the Yakamoto family they emphasized that they have their own choice of entertainment which give them satisfaction. They feel relaxed and happy too. Every country has different choices of entertainment but in Japan they emphasized that the karaoke and anime are their best choice d uring their free time.Their favorite day is Sunday which all the members of the family are join together to have their outing. Mr. John E. Lamuth, 45 years old author who finished his Master of Science Degree in Counseling from California State University who wrote â€Å"The Essential Guide to Family Values under the Grand Unified Theory of Ethics and Morality† which the title involve new moral scheme is the first grand combination theory of its kind: the ethical values establish in traditional Greek philosophy improved by the writings of the great Church theologians for the past two years.The typical groupings of ethical values defined within this scheme all happen to be related on an perceptive level, recommending a clear sense of essential cohesiveness. The source of innovation behind this alteration arises as a direct result of the emerging field of Communications, Theory, borrowing the critical concept of the met perspective. Based on this theoretical example, the concep tual groupings of virtues and values are cooperatively seen as subsets within this ladder of met perspectives, each more theoretical grouping constructing upon those which it succeed.There are ten levels hierarchy of met perspectives somewhat reproduced like GLORY reproduced as PRUDENCE, PROVIDENCE reproduced as FAITH, GRACE reproduced as BEAUTY, TRANQUILITY reproduced as ECSTACY , HONOR reproduce as JUSTICE, LIBERTY reproduced as HOPE, FREE WILL reproduced as TRUTH and EQUALITY reproduced as BLISS. The consistent hierarchy of qualities, morals, and best proves extremely complete in scope , accounting for almost every major ethical term renowned within the Western ethical tradition.It is simple to achieve a sense of the development towards increasing theoretical when examine each of the individually represent columns from top to bottom. Such external similarity, however, has an inadequate claim to be the complete picture; for it further proves probable to stand this hierarchy of fam ily values completely within a behavioral organization; specifically the vocabulary of operant conditioning recommended by the famous American psychologist ,B. F Skinner. The complete ten level of hierarchy of family values lastly accomplished the degree of authenticity applicable such accurate â€Å"technology of behavior.† Definitely, this new system proves particularly well appropriate for launching moral values to a new generation of youth. One of the important things learned in this course is the reality of distinct family values among different cultures. That there is a difference between an Asian culture specially to the Japanese. The grand unified theory of ethics in moral by Mr. John Lamuth is very applicable to Japanese family because they are very aware to their family reputation and moral. They give this kind of responsibility to all the housewives.That’s why all the mother or wives are responsible in maintaining social relations to their relatives, neighbo rs and for maintaining and managing the family reputation. In this theory we learn the importance of ethics and morality in a person itself. Because of this they can get the respect and love of others people. It is not hard for them to talk to them and ask for some help because we already planted a good moral for yourself. Japanese families gain this kind of high reputation. They possess some characteristics like being responsible, honest,loving and respectful from within and to their love ones.Meaning their family are intact and with a good relationship to each other. Japanese families are very ideal and somewhat to idolized by every family in Asian country and Western country too. They are really different to other families because even they are so busy they can save time too for their family specially Sunday. This is one good reason why they are so successful. Being successful and happy start first in the relationship we had for your own family. Family gives us the totality as a person. No one can understand you and love you like what your family gives you.Love, Care and Respect your family. Don’t be so selfish to give your love and attention to other member of the family and you will see in return that love and attention you give makes them feel better and very happy. Happiness makes a person successful because of doing their work easily.BIBLIOGRAPHYâ€Å"http://en. wikipedia. org. /wiki/Japanese_family†Http: www. furious. com/perfect/karaoke. html Modern Japan – Entertainment – Anime. htm Lamuth, John E. 1999, The Ultimate Guide to Family Values: A Grand Unified Theory of Ethics in Morality, California U. S. A

Black Matters Essay

I must admit that this is the most challenging fruitful reading that I have ever endured. At first it was a drag, but once I took out my dictionary and got serious I begin to truly understand, accept and open my mind to a new learning experience. Black matters is a powerful statement, before reading I glanced at the title and it gave me pride. I thought to myself that black matters was a new meaning for my black people and standing up for what they believed in. Black matters means that my black people problems are equal to the white superior man or women. Black matters means that we the black race are the priority, we are important, we are not invisible and we do to matter. Toni Morrison, a strong African American woman, with a strong voice and many words. An author and editor: born February 18, 1931 in Lorain, Ohio; the first African American woman to receive Nobel Prize in Literature. I have heard students in my class refer to Morrison as a literature legend because of her most popular writings. I have never in life read or heard of Toni Morrison; however, my impression of her is charismatic, devoted, hardworking, strong will, expressive and much more. I look at her as a teacher and I believe that she practices what she preach. Her emotion in the passage was deep I sense anger, disappointment, and at some point fear. I also sense happiness to be able to inform. People all over the world would benefit from this particular writing because it expands literature from black prospective verses the ordinary expected. According to Brooklyn Academy, Morrison states that her ultimate goal is to â€Å"to restore the language that black people spoke to its original power†. Her intention in this piece is to take down the boundaries that limit African American literature to its people, not only us but she intends to broadcast it around the world for everyone to hear, see and understand. While planting the seed with a little imagination to draw a picture in our mind so we can better picture of African American adventure. It would take place without a big seen or drama it would just be food for thought for the African American race. I like when she says â€Å"my work requires me to think about how free I can be as an African American writer women writer in my genderized, sexualized, wholly racialized world. This is a very genderized, sexualized, wholly racialized world and throughout any career, the African American race will always be judged and challenged especially women. â€Å"American literature has been clearly the preserve of the white male views, genius, and power, those views, genius, and power are without relationship to and removed from the overwhelming presence of black in the united states†. This is totally not fair because they are only educating us from one prospective. They are leaving out our black genius people who have slaved and fought for our freedom. In their eyes W. E. B Dubois, Fredrick Douglass, James Baldwin, Alice Walker and many more do not matter. Let them tell it there is only one way and that is the white way. That is why are black children are uniformed and uneducated. That is why black history month is not longer celebrated in the schools today.

An informative report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

An informative report - Essay Example The stress that he experiences otherwise gets added to the stress that waits for him at the workplace. In today’s world where leaders have to cope with difficult economic situations, they essentially have to go through stress both emotionally and physically. During financial crisis, stress adds up. For the management, layoffs, delayed salaries, low budgets, and pressure from senior staff produces put strain over the managers’ minds which then results in decreased productivity and poor output. They undergo fear, become irritable, suffer through nuisance, and all this reflects in their relationship with the co-workers. Workplace stress includes: fatigue due to overworking without lunch or rest breaks or working for longer hours without naps dissatisfaction caused by lack of motivation when the employees are not given their due rewards lack of interest in the job due to constant pressure coming from seniors and poor communication among the leaders, management and the emplo yees. It becomes important for the leaders and the management to learn how to deal with stressful situations to escape fear, tension and uncertainty. This stress management ability decides whether a leader is going to prove himself as success or failure. Stress is, mostly, very much related to how a person deals with the situation. According to the research carried out by Professor Cox (qtd.

The Native Americans in the 18th and 19th Centuries Essay - 1

The Native Americans in the 18th and 19th Centuries - Essay Example This paper illustrates that although there is a common belief that the Native Americans came from Asia, few if any came from India. Mistakenly believing that he had landed in the Indies, Christopher Columbus gave them the name ‘Indian’. Other names accorded to them include Indigenous Peoples of America, Aboriginal Americans, American Indians, Amerindians, and First Peoples First Nations among others. For many years, these people had peacefully lived in America until the invasion of the European colonialists and explorers who brought endless problems to them. Since the European colonists landed in America in the 16th and 17th century, the Native Americans welcomed them enthusiastically. They admired their â€Å"outlandish clothes, ships as well as their superb technology including brass and copper kettles, mirrors, earrings, the fire-belching cannon and arquebus, hawk bells, steel swords and knives† among others. However, there eventually arose conflicts as the Nat ive Americans discovered their materialistic view of the land coupled with their â€Å"cultural arrogance†. In the 18th and 19th centuries, the European colonists invaded the state and colonies frontiers inexorably displacing Native Americans from the most favorable land. Largely displaced were the Native Americans in the central and eastern North Carolina portions. Often times, â€Å"the Natives resisted this process violently†. Armed conflicts such as the Tuscarora (1711–1715) and Yemassee (1715–1717) wars involved â€Å"forcefully† removing native populations onto a small number of small reservations.

Shakespeare Othello Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 1

Shakespeare Othello - Essay Example Shakespeare’s play Othello is set in Venice and Cyprus and involves a general named Othello, a person of black decent living among the whites. Despite having an African heritage, Othello is a general in the Venetian army and is happily married to Desdemona, a white woman (Othello 870). However, Roderigo; a rich young man was jealous of the marriage between Desdemona and Othello since he had been pursuing her love in vain. Therefore, he unites with Iago who hates Othello for favoring the inexperienced soldier, Michael Cassio. Othello promoted Cassio to the lieutenant position instead of Iago who had a lot of experience. They ganged up against Othello and started planning on how to ruin both his marriage and life. Discrimination occurs due to various reasons such as envy, desire for power and fear. Racism is frequently viewed in terms of morphological features like hair type, skin color, as well as facial looks (Rizzo 65). Just like in Shakespeare’s plays, Moors and other foreigners are identified by use of skin color. This play actually presents racist message when Othello, a character of African origin is insulted due to his race. For instance, in the play, he is referred as â€Å"The lustful Moor† (Shakespeare 2.1.290) Consequently, Othello is regarded as â€Å"An old black ram†¦ tupping your white ewe† (Shakespeare, 1.1.110-6). Consequently, he is seen as â€Å"a Barbary horse† to †¦, make the beast †¦backs† (Shakespeare 1.1.110-6). These are racist insults of animal imagery directed at Othello because of is of African origin. He is seen as animal of lower status compared to the whites within Venice. However, I do not agree with the assessment of the play and the playwright that Shakespeare is a racist. This is because Shakespeare never considered race a central theme in his works. Instead, his comprehensive soul established an impressive racial vision. He comprehended many things related to racism there by making him develop an impartial attitude towards different races within his surroundings (Moore 121). Consequently, five of Shakespearean plays focused on racial problems within his white centered Christendom society. This clearly proves that Shakespeare identifies the existence of racial differences though he is not a racist. Despite presence of sexual jokes as well as animal imagery directed to Othello, it is wrong for critics to consider Shakespeare a racist. Shakespeare is an impartial and humanitarian dramatist championing for interracial equality liberty, as well as fraternity. In fact, he encourages everyone to shy away or come out of racial bond, which cuts human hearts. Thus, we should discard racism since it cuts human hearts resulting in tragedies rather than curing the same (Bloom 78). Further, some critics argue that the sexual jokes as well as animal imagery within the play are forms of racial discrimination directed by Shakespeare towards Othello. For instance, he is referred as an old black ram spoiling Brabantio’s white ewe. The other instance is when Othello is considered a Barbary horse covering Desdemona would later produce a beast with two backs (Shakespeare 1.1.110-6). Consequently, Othello is portrayed as a person who gets angry faster. This is proved when he believes in the lies of Iago concerning the purported affair between her and Cassio. The lie angers him so much and makes him jealous of Cassio. Later, it

Business Law Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 2

Business Law - Case Study Example To save the marriage couples from such unfortunate happenings, the government thought to have compulsory counselling for the to-be-married interracial individuals. There are many arguments that can be used against the statutes. Firstly, it can be notified that the for the people whose vehicles are registered outside the state of Minnesota, are compelled to purchase and install an expensive device to reduce radioactive emissions to save the birds. This can be treated as injustice to those vehicle owners. If the device can really check pollution, the device should be made mandatory to all vehicles and not just to those registered with a different state. In the second case, the two weeks of counselling for the inter-racial couples prior to marriage can be identified as state imposition. The law of the land preferably should not dictate the matured adult citizens. Marriage is a personal agenda and varies from person to person. The law should not be mingled with the requirements of the pre-marriage counselling sessions. The prime duty of the court of law is to ensure that the justice is ensured to all the parties. It functions with in the broad guideline that the legislature has provided with. Also, the court does not have the weapon to execute the law. For such purpose, it has to depend upon the executive. The court would ensure that the all the legalities are maintained in its best form. Ralph feels that the company of drug free enterprise has breached his trust. For the purpose, Ralph wants to sue the company with $ 79,000. The most appropriate court would be the place where the agreement was signed in between the enterprise and Ralph. It could also be the place upon where Ralph was supposed to oversee the distribution. The basis for the jurisdiction would depend upon the minute details that were penned down in the agreement between Ralph and the company. There may be lot many reasons. Some of them might involve deviation from the agreed price or